Crap is Just a Four Letter Word
My former partner, Lisa and I accepted teaching positions at a Waldorf School in the South. The school was well established and decided to start a high school and Lisa was to teach Life Sciences and I would teach movement part time. I could not start teaching until the beginning of November because I had to finish commitments in Vermont one of which was to make sure our house was ready for a young couple moving in. Lisa traveled down south to start the year without me. The young couple moved into our house and I camped out or stayed with friends while finishing up. Many mornings I would get up early, travel to a pay phone and talk with Lisa for hours. It wasn’t long before she convinced me that I had to come down for a week to help accompany the ninth grade class trip to a farm. The trip would last five days and I could drive the bus. The next thing I knew I was on a plane. It was great to see Lisa. We caught up on all the news since our last two-hour phone call and started discussing the class trip.
It was the morning of departure and one by one the students arrived. After packing we were on our way. It wasn’t long before they all let me know that all their favorite bus drivers let them listen to the radio and I soon relented. It completely baffled me how a bus that cost 35,000 dollars could have a radio that probably cost 10 dollars. It was the worst sounding radio I’ve heard in quite some time. What really amazed me, as I looked in the rear view mirror, was how happy the ninth grade seemed to be listening to it. This happiness was only temporary. One by one they called out, “can you change the station?” It started to rain and between the windshield wipers, station changing, and listening to 14 ninth graders arguing over what kind of music to have I didn’t care if I was their favorite bus driver or not. I turned off the radio. I only had to put up with complaining for a little while before arriving at the Sustenance Farm. We unpacked the camping gear and Harvey, the head of the farm, gave instructions. The students were divided up into two groups. The one group set up the tents while the other group dug two latrines and set up tarps surrounding the holes. One was for the girls and one for the boys. When Harvey left, the discussion about latrines began. They couldn’t believe their parents were actually paying for this. What were they thinking? Who ever heard of going to the bathroom in a hole with a blue tarp around them? It wasn’t long before nature called and since there was no other option there was no use in complaining. The next hurtle involved taking a shower. Somehow everyone thought we were hopping on the bus and heading to the nearest town for showers. They were extremely disappointed when they found out the bus was parked for the entire five days. On the Sustenance Farm blue tarps are considered a great building material. The shower stall consists of a blue tarp with a solar shower. The solar shower is a black bag with a hose attached to it. When the bag is filled with water and placed in the sun, the water is heated up, providing a warm shower. Up until this moment the students were so happy that it was rainy making our stay nice and cool. It wasn’t long before they figured out that solar hot water bags don’t work in the rain. I was delegated the job of instructing the complexity of using the shower. My first customer was Chelsea. “You see this five gallon bucket.” She nods slowly. “You fill the bucket up with this hose. You see this yogurt container?’ She nods once again. “Fill the yogurt cup with water from the five gallon bucket and dump it on your head. Any questions?” She looks at me in disbelief. I start walking away then turn back. “Can you tell the others how to work the shower?” I could tell she was still in shock by the way her mouth sagged while she nodded her head.
At the beginning of our stay the students couldn’t wait until the week was over. During the week we sang songs, heard stories, did chores and learned many new things throughout the week and by the end of the week it was hard to leave this special place. The ninth grade had the opportunity to see how much of the world still takes care of their human waste and bathes. In a world with decreasing amounts of fresh water what does it mean to flush our wastes down the toilet?
Through the years our society has viewed urine and feces as waste and to be avoided. Human disease is associated with feces and rightly so. Many pathogens can be passed through and out the human intestine. There are more than 140 viruses worldwide, salmonella and also certain protozoa (amoebic dysentery) that can live in human feces. The main pathogens that persist in human feces are parasitic worms. These include hookworms (Necator amercanus, Ancylostoma duodenale, A. braziliense, A. caninum, and A. ceylanicum), whipworms (Trichuris trichiura), and roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides). It is the roundworm’s eggs that are the hardest to kill. The eggs have a shell made of five layers that resist freezing temperatures; many chemicals including disinfectants, harsh environmental conditions and can last up to ten years. Roundworm eggs are killed when heated for one hour at 120 degrees Fahrenheit.1
Human urine, feces and food scraps can be composted. In any compost pile there are microorganisms that heat it up and break down the organic material. When the temperature of the pile is below 55 degrees Fahrenheit, psychrophilic (low temperature) bacteria begin the composting process. The temperature of the pile will start to increase due to the activity of the bacteria and also the temperature of the air. When the temperature of the pile rises to 70-90 degrees Fahrenheit, mesophilic (medium temperature) bacteria take over. The temperature of the pile rises once again to 95 degrees and another group of bacteria, the thermophiles (high temperature), begin their work. These bacteria can raise the temperature of the compost to above150 degrees although this is not desirable. The optimum temperature is somewhere around 120 degrees Fahrenheit. The longer a compost pile is too hot the more non-thermophilic bacteria will die off, decreasing the diversity of beneficial microorganisms. It is at this stage of high heat that roundworm eggs are killed and since the eggs are the hardest to destroy the compost is safe from pathogens. After a period of time (3days –2 weeks) at 120 degrees and the roundworm eggs are destroyed the compost pile starts to cool down. Mesophiles followed by the psychrophiles once again take over the process. Other microorganisms, as well as fungi, earthworms, sowbugs, millipedes etc. finish the composting process.2
When I started reading about the microorganisms and the temperature they had to be kept to accomplish the composting process I wondered if I could regulate such a complex system. Due to the cold of Northern Vermont I altered the way I built my compost pile. Every spring I build the pile 6-7 feet tall with partially composted humanure-food scraps along with fresh cut hay in layers (first layer is hay, second layer is partially composted humanure and food scraps, third layer is hay, etc). After I build the pile, the compost just heats up. I take temperature readings of the compost pile with a compost thermometer and every year I get similar results. The temperature slowly rises to 122 degrees Fahrenheit and stays there for 5-7 days then cools down. As the composting process occurs the height of the pile drops until the compost pile measures about one and half feet high after it has cooled down. I’ve repeated this over and over and every time I am amazed at the magic that occurs. This process of humification changes the organic matter in the compost to form stable organic matter called humus that resists further breakdown by microbes. Humus is generally dark brown to black in color and makes the soil light, airy and stable.3 The process is very simple and is laid out in detail in Joseph Jenkin’s Humanure Handbook.
To gain a full picture it is helpful to take a look at the structure of soil. Soil is made up of minerals and organic matter (OM). Microorganisms begin the process of building soil structure. It is through microbial activity that organic matter, which includes dead plant and animal material, manure, and organic chemicals, is decomposed. Organic matter is mostly made of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. In soil, oxygen is needed for the organic matter decomposition process to occur, releasing water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The process of changing the carbon found in organic matter to carbon dioxide is known as mineralization. The mineralized carbon in the form of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere during the decomposition of organic matter.4 In this process microbes exude polysaccharides, which act as a glue to bind inorganic particles such as clay and sand together. Locked in between the particles are small bits of organic matter. This mineral-organic matter complex is known as an aggregate.5 Microorganisms cannot reach the trapped organic matter preventing mineralization to occur. In other words, the more aggregates that are formed the more carbon will be trapped decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere.
When many aggregates are held together in bundles by fungal mycelium and root fibers, macro-aggregates are formed. The microbes chemically stimulate fungal and root growth so that aggregates are held together while at the same time roots and fungi release chemicals to stimulate microbial activity producing more aggregates.6 It is this environment including aggregates and humus that makes up the soil structure that provides the pores and crevices needed to hold the water and air for life to flourish. In this environment macro-organisms such as worms and beetles produces more channels allowing the soil to hold even more water and air. Aggregates, organic matter along with the microbes and products made by the different organisms make up a healthy soil. Water can slowly travel through the soil distributing minerals and trace elements that living organisms (plants and animals) need to maintain their metabolism. When humus decreases, the soil becomes compact (aggregate formation and soil structure decreases) and water is not absorbed and runs off causing floods. During droughts the water is not stored and the soil dries quickly in hot dry weather. Both of these conditions (droughts and floods) make it hard for the microbes to flourish, which are needed to prevent droughts and floods.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has been rising and is linked to climate change. The soil sequesters (absorbs) carbon from the atmosphere through the processes of humification and aggregation trapping the carbon as organic matter within the humus and aggregates. This increases water retention and movement, aeration within the soils, while decreasing floods and drying out of soils during droughts. It has been found that aggregates need protection from wind and rain to remain cemented together. Raindrops or particles carried by the wind can hit aggregates breaking them apart exposing the trapped organic matter to microbial activity and carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Soils are exposed when trees are cut, when plant growth is decreased due to droughts or compacted soils, or exposing soils through human activities such as building, etc. Instead of storing carbon in our soils erosion causes an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide through aggregate destruction and loss of humus.7
Soil depletion has many complex effects on the environment, in addition to decreased ability to hold water. Among these is the disruption of the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is integral in the production of amino acids, which are needed for all life forms. Although our atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, plants cannot utilize it in the atmospheric state. Nitrogen is also found throughout the soil in animal manure and dead organic matter, which is broken down by nitrifying bacteria into ammonium ions, which the plants can utilize. In high concentrations, however ammonia is toxic to plants, but excess amounts are easily converted to nitrites (NO2-) by a different species of nitrifying bacteria. Once again nitrifying bacteria (different species) converts nitrites into nitrates (NO3-) before plants can use the nitrogen. It is only when nitrogen is in the ammonium or nitrate form that nitrogen can be used to produce amino acids by plants, which are the building blocks of protein. Atmospheric nitrogen also can be converted to nitrates by nitrogen fixing bacteria that live on nodules located on the roots of plants known as legumes. Legumes include clover, peas, beans, and alfalfa. These plants that harbor the nitrifying bacteria build nitrogen in the soil in the form of nitrate. For nitrification to occur good soil structure must be in place for the nitrogen-fixing bacteria to exist.
If the soil structure is poor the plants that are being grown as food still need nitrogen to be healthy and is added in the form of inorganic fertilizer. Fritz Haber a German chemist invented a process to change atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia using gas or petroleum as a source of hydrogen. At first the ammonia was used to produce nitrate, a compound needed to produce explosives. The explosives were mass-produced by the Germans during World War I. Modifications were made to this process to make fertilizer and soon adopted by the world as an acceptable way to increase soil fertility.8 The amount of inorganic fertilizer use has steadily risen through the years to 137 million tons in 1998 worldwide.9 When fertilizer is added instead of building the soil structure, the soil becomes compacted and some of the fertilizer runs into our waterways. As soil loses more and more humus (loses structure) an increased amount of fertilizer is needed to gain similar results (law of diminishing returns. The nitrogen from the fertilizer enters our waterways in various stages. About 20% of the nitrogen leaches from the fields directly into our streams, ponds, rivers, etc. However, the leaching of nitrogen does not stop in the fields. As much as 30% of the original nitrogen from the fertilizer trapped in the harvested crops fed to animals, humans, and landfills is released into the water. When added up, 50% of the nitrogen from fertilizer is released into our waterways.10
Our ancient forests are estimated to have 137,000 pounds of humus per acre. After removing the necessary carbon needed for humification from logging, agriculture, building, etc. our soils now contain 20,000-70,000 pounds of humus per acre with some soils containing almost no humus.11 As stated, humus holds water. In fact it holds nine times its weight in water or 900% as compared to sand at 2% or clay at 20%.12 Since depleted soil cannot retain as much water as healthy soil, during dry spells plants need to be irrigated to grow food. Much of the water for irrigation is pumped from ground water aquifers. Some of these aquifers fill slowly requiring water to percolate through the soil. If the soil is compacted, water runs off reducing the amount that reaches the aquifers. The amount of irrigation has steadily climbed since the 1950’s. As of 1996 the world irrigates 263 million hectares (one hectare = 2.5 acres).13 (vital signs 1999 p. 45) Farmers worldwide are pumping 160 billion cubic meters more ground water than is filtering down to our ground water supplies. As water tables decrease, the cost of pumping increases in both money and energy.14 The activity of irrigating involves exponential growth, throughput and diminishing returns on many levels.
Water is directly used in flushing our wastes down the toilet. In the average home, each person uses 188 gallons per day. This does not include water needed for agriculture, manufacturing, and etc., which add up to 1,565 gallons per person per day.15 Toilet flushing uses, on the average, 30 gallons per day per person or about 17% of the household water needs. Many septic systems do not work properly so not only is precious water being used but also wastes are leaching into our ground water. On a large scale in the mid 1980’s 3619 trillion gallons per year of treated wastewater were released into the coastal waters by 2,209 publicly owned sewage treatment plants.16 Wastewater along with fertilizer runoff lead to increased levels of nitrogen (remember the nitrogen?) and phosphorous levels in the water. This condition stimulates huge algal growth. After the algae blooms the algae dies off and sinks to the bottom of the water source. Organisms decompose the dead algae, using up the dissolved oxygen in the water. Since fish and other organisms need oxygen to survive they die. This choking process is known as eutrification. This is evident at the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico where there is a “dead zone” due to eutrification.17 Many species of algae release biotoxins that are poisonous to humans and marine organisms such as fish, exaggerating the problem.
Sewage is one of the environmental problems that have contributed to the closing of over 2000 beaches in 12 states in 1991 because of high bacteria levels. By 1997 pollution closed 4153 beaches.18 Our need for toilets contributes to this mess. Many have captured the essence of the archaic system. Carol Stoner writes “For one person, the typical five gallon flush contaminates each year about 13,000 gallons of fresh water to move a mere 165 gallons of body waste.”19
Nitrogen and phosphorus are not only needed for plant growth but also for the microorganisms needed in the humification process. When inorganic fertilizer is applied for agricultural use, nitrogen and phosphorus feed the plant growth directly but does little towards humification because there is no organic matter (carbon) for aggregate formation. Humanure has 5-7% nitrogen while cattle manure has 1.7% nitrogen and hens have 6.27% nitrogen. Humanure has 3-5.4% phosphorus compared to cattle’s 1.1% phosphorus and hen’s 5.92% phosphorus. Human urine with nitrogen content of 15-19% and phosphorous content of 2.5-5% along with the solid wastes can produce the compost needed for humification.20
Chicken manure is considered to have high fertilizer qualities. In fact if not composted, plants can “burn” because of its high nitrogen content. When high nitrogen and phosphorus content along with organic matter are composted humus can be made. Back on the farm, Jim, a fellow teacher of the ninth grade had the privilege to observe chicken manure up close. Along with the ninth grade we were all encouraged by Harvey to hold the chickens. Jim seemed to have such a calming effect on his chicken. The chicken became so relaxed and soon Jim was using his chicken manure observation skills. It was soon time for the next event and Jim went to the shower (you remember the shower) to clean up his organic matter phenomena.
Although humanure’s high nitrogen and phosphorus levels are similar to chicken manure and well suited for composting, it is not acceptable in the Western World. There are cultures that have utilized their excrement for centuries. The Hunzas, who live in Northern Pakistan, are well known for their healthy lifestyle and longevity. Many live to 120 years old disease free. As stated by a medical professional working with the Hunzas, “During the period of my association with these people I never saw a case of asthenic dyspepsia, of gastric or duodenal ulcer, of appendicitis, of mucous colitis, of cancer…Among these people the abdomen over-sensitive to nerve impressions, to fatigue, anxiety, or cold was unknown. Indeed their buoyant abdominal health has, since my return to the West, provided a remarkable contrast with the dyspeptic and colonic lamentations of our highly civilized communities.” What is not as well known of the Hunzas is that they recycle their manure. Sir Albert Howard (please refer to the attached article on Howard) wrote, “The remarkable health of these people is one of the consequences of their agriculture, in which the law of return is scrupulously obeyed. All their vegetable, animal and human wastes [sic] are carefully returned to the soil of the irrigated terraces which produce the grain, fruit, and vegetables which feed them.” Tompkins (1989) states, “In their manuring, the Hunzakuts return everything they can to the soil: all vegetable parts and pieces that will not serve as food for humans or beast, including such fallen leaves as the cattle will not eat, mixed with their own seasoned excrement, plus dung and urine from their barns. Like their Chinese neighbors, the Hunzakuts save their own manure in special underground vats, clear of any contaminable streams, there to be seasoned for a good six months. Everything that once had life is given new to life through loving hands.”21
Lisa and I started composting all of our organic materials, including our human wastes 12 years ago. By building up our humus on our property the soil’s ability to hold water increased. We’ve gone through several droughts some of which many neighbor’s wells dried up. Some of our friends had to carry water just to flush their toilets. Luckily our water needs were very low. Our gardens needed little water (if any), the washing machine uses about 18 gallons of water per load instead of the usual 50 gallons, and we had a composting toilet eliminating the need to flush. Not only did our shallow well make it through the droughts, the water level of our pond was only 6-8 inches from the top compared with other ponds around us that were a number of feet lower. I can’t be sure why we were so lucky, but our soil seems to buffer the effect of draughts. The big question is how much energy is used (green house gases) to produce the septic systems, the sewage treatment plants including the pipes and excavation, the fertilizers needed to increase food production, the irrigation systems, and the equipment and materials needed to deal with floods, droughts and pollution? I seem to ask another repeated question over and over, can our children pay the increasing costs in the future?
After the farm trip I traveled back to Vermont to finish my commitments. Once again I found myself at phone booths talking to Lisa. She told me everything that was happening with the ninth grade. The temporary classroom was at a church and was much too small for these students. Two more students were going to become part of the class and it was clear they had to move. The school asked a farm, located next to the lower school, if the class could use a space until the high school building was completed, and they said yes. When I arrived in late October I could see that the ninth grade was completely at home at this farm. With a composting toilet in the yard and the sink outside, who wouldn’t be at home? This composting toilet even offered entertainment. Andrew another colleague one day was contributing his efforts in the humification-aggregation process when the ninth grade decided to turn an outside latch on the composting toilet locking him inside the composting toilet. Luckily for Andrew there was a hole just below the roof that he could crawl through. When he stuck his head through the hole the ninth grade was ready and armed with a camera. After capturing this event on film they unlocked the door. I can tell this year is going to be a year to remember.
Sir Albert Howard --In Memoriam
By J.I. Rodale
From Organic Gardening, Vol. 2, No. 6, December, 1947
ON October 20th the sad news came across the cables that Sir Albert Howard had quietly passed away that morning of a heart attack suffered at his home in Blackheath, nine miles from London, at the age of 74.
It is deeply distressing to think that the leader of the organic farming movement is no more, that he who has won international fame for his labors in the interests of the soil will soon be laid to rest in that same brown soil which was the passion of his life. It is still incredible that the man from whom we heard in every mail, whom we plied with a thousand questions and whose magnetic personality and deathless friendship were felt in every sheet and envelope he sent, has passed from the scene. Although he had continued to work unremittingly until his last moments and had seemed to be in good health, it is certain that the trying conditions with which he, like all his fellow Britishers, had been coping in these recent years had been insidiously undermining his vigor.
Circumstances and conditions militated against the Howards' acquisition of a place large enough to produce their own food, which, had they been able to achieve, would undoubtedly have meant the prolongation of Sir Albert's life. Food being scarce in England, friends on this side occasionally sent packages to the Howards, a mere token endeavor to help. Still, he lived beyond the Biblical allotment of three-score years and ten.
It is one of the insolaceable regrets of my life that I never had the honor of meeting Sir Albert personally. Yet I feel that our relations have been as close as if we had had weekly meetings in the intimate sessions of personal friends. We needed only to ask a favor of each other to find it done. Sir Albert would search in the second-hand stalls of London bookshops in which to find some rare book of which I had need. Recently he undertook the task of obtaining some photographs from the Royal Geographical Society for a book which I am engaged in writing. On our side, we filled the need of Sir Albert for books and bulletins. We were like inseparable, inveterate friends.
I was frequently delighted by Sir Albert's copious use of American slang in his personal letters to me. Sir Albert's honesty and flexibility always inspired in me the most profound respect and veneration. He had developed the Indore method of making compost over a period of thirty years in India and attained world-wide fame because of it. One would imagine that he would have ardently preserved and doggedly fought over its every tenet, every split hair of its principle. Yet, when we discovered on this side of the ocean that the two turnings of the compost could be eliminated by employing earthworms for that purpose, he applauded heartily, reprinting in his publication, Soil and Health, our article describing that method. On other occasions, too, he zealously exhibited the same totally dispassionate and altruistic interest in contributions by others to his own life's purpose and project.
With his scintillating spark of genius and that paramount ability of leadership in his field, he corresponded with people all over the world, seeing the seeds of his work planted in New Zealand, Australia, Rhodesia, Palestine, India, Central America, Canada, the United States and many other countries where organic farming societies are now flourishing. He answered hundreds of letters every month, promptly and with exemplary thoroughness. Through my knowledge of him there were dozens of persons in the United States who maintained a steady correspondence with Sir Albert. It was a strenuous program for a man of 74, and demanded that he give unstintingly of his time, his energy, and his money.
He fought the chemical companies, the college professors, and all the vested interests that placed considerations of financial profit ahead of the welfare of man and that of the soil. Fearing no one, he gave others the courage to fight, himself setting the example and the pattern. A strong and stalwart bulwark, defender of the soil, he tilted intrepidly with the chemical dragons. He had a kind of picturesque grandeur and strength that commanded the admiration and respect of friend and foe. From his own richly metaphor-laden language comes the opprobrious phrase, "devil's dust," with which he dubbed chemical fertilizers.
On the very morning of his passing, October 20th, I received what I suppose I shall have to enshrine as his last letter to me. Dated October 15th: in it he pledged $100.00 as a donation to the new Soil and Health Foundation, saying "I will send you soon some suggestions about the work of the Foundation. This is only to say how pleased I am that you have made a beginning." It is for us to hope that the work of the Foundation will do honor to the memory of Sir Albert Howard.
Here is a word of advice given to the people of the United States by Sir Albert in that same letter: "Whatever your Government does, for heaven's sake try to stop them from lending us any more money. We could grow the food we want on this island, if we made a real national effort. The advice of the U.S.A. to John Bull should be: 'Root, hog, or die.' Once we got our soil into shape, England would be born again. Sometimes it is a case of being cruel to be kind. This is one such occasion."
We agriculturists thank him for his work in behalf of a troubled world, for his brilliant efforts in showing science tat, unless it tempers itself somewhat, it may some day soon lead to worlddestruction. In his eyes shone only the most compassionate love and devotion, that total dedication to the regeneration of the soil to which he gave his life.
Sir Albert Howard, the world salutes you! The world, both its great and its pitiable common men who must resign their sad lives to a long oblivion as they chant to Mother Earth their immemorially pathetic plaint, 'te morituri salutamus.' Your memory, however, will be forever green. Your accomplishments will go down through the ages, your spirit haloed with undimming brilliance.
J. I. RODALE
1 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 158, 169-172.
2 Nancy Trautmann and Elaina Olynciw, file://A\microbes.htm
3 Robert L. Tate, Soil Organic Matter: Biological and Ecological Effects, (N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, 1987), p.114.
4 Rattan Lal (editor), Soil Carbon Sequestration and the Greenhouse Effect, “Fate of Eroded Soil Organic Carbon: Emission or Sequestration”, by Ratton Lal, (Madison, Wisconsin: Soil Science Society of America, Inc., 2001), p. 173-175).
5 Robert L. Tate III, Soil Organic Matter: Biological and Ecological Effects, (N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, 1987), p. 69.
6 Ibid. (p.9-10).
7 Rattan Lal (editor), Soil Carbon Sequestration and the Greenhouse Effect, “Fate of Eroded Soil Organic Carbon: Emission or Sequestration”, by Rattan Lal, (Madison, Wisconsin: Soil Science Society of America, Inc., 2001), p. 175.
8 http://www.woodrow.org/ Fritz Haber – Biography. htm
9 Lester R. Brown, Michael Renner, and Brian Halweil, Vital Signs 2000: The Environmental Trends That are Shaping Our Future, (N.Y. and London: W. W. Norton and Company, 2000), p. 47.
10 The National Research Council, Clean Coastal Waters: Understanding and Reducing the Effects of Nutrient Pollution, (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2000), p. 116-117.
11 William E. Marks, The Holy Order of Water: Healing Earth’s Waters and Ourselves, (Great Barrington, MA: Bell Pond Books, 2001), p. 150-151.
12 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 50.
13 Lester R. Brown, Michael Renner, Brian Halweil, Vital Signs 1999: The Environmental Trends That are Shaping Our Future, p.45.
14 Lester R. Brown, Michael Renner and Brian Halweil, Vital Signs 2000: The Environmental Trends That are Shaping Our Future, (N.Y. and London: W. W. Norton and Company, 2000). p.122-123.
15 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 40.
16 Ibid. (p. 35).
17 //localhost/A:/Global Nitrogen Cycle.htm
18 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 35.
19 Carol H. Stoner, Goodbye to the Flush Toilet, (Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press Inc., 1977), p. vii.
20 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 57-58.
21 Tompkins, Peter in: Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 151-152.
It was the morning of departure and one by one the students arrived. After packing we were on our way. It wasn’t long before they all let me know that all their favorite bus drivers let them listen to the radio and I soon relented. It completely baffled me how a bus that cost 35,000 dollars could have a radio that probably cost 10 dollars. It was the worst sounding radio I’ve heard in quite some time. What really amazed me, as I looked in the rear view mirror, was how happy the ninth grade seemed to be listening to it. This happiness was only temporary. One by one they called out, “can you change the station?” It started to rain and between the windshield wipers, station changing, and listening to 14 ninth graders arguing over what kind of music to have I didn’t care if I was their favorite bus driver or not. I turned off the radio. I only had to put up with complaining for a little while before arriving at the Sustenance Farm. We unpacked the camping gear and Harvey, the head of the farm, gave instructions. The students were divided up into two groups. The one group set up the tents while the other group dug two latrines and set up tarps surrounding the holes. One was for the girls and one for the boys. When Harvey left, the discussion about latrines began. They couldn’t believe their parents were actually paying for this. What were they thinking? Who ever heard of going to the bathroom in a hole with a blue tarp around them? It wasn’t long before nature called and since there was no other option there was no use in complaining. The next hurtle involved taking a shower. Somehow everyone thought we were hopping on the bus and heading to the nearest town for showers. They were extremely disappointed when they found out the bus was parked for the entire five days. On the Sustenance Farm blue tarps are considered a great building material. The shower stall consists of a blue tarp with a solar shower. The solar shower is a black bag with a hose attached to it. When the bag is filled with water and placed in the sun, the water is heated up, providing a warm shower. Up until this moment the students were so happy that it was rainy making our stay nice and cool. It wasn’t long before they figured out that solar hot water bags don’t work in the rain. I was delegated the job of instructing the complexity of using the shower. My first customer was Chelsea. “You see this five gallon bucket.” She nods slowly. “You fill the bucket up with this hose. You see this yogurt container?’ She nods once again. “Fill the yogurt cup with water from the five gallon bucket and dump it on your head. Any questions?” She looks at me in disbelief. I start walking away then turn back. “Can you tell the others how to work the shower?” I could tell she was still in shock by the way her mouth sagged while she nodded her head.
At the beginning of our stay the students couldn’t wait until the week was over. During the week we sang songs, heard stories, did chores and learned many new things throughout the week and by the end of the week it was hard to leave this special place. The ninth grade had the opportunity to see how much of the world still takes care of their human waste and bathes. In a world with decreasing amounts of fresh water what does it mean to flush our wastes down the toilet?
Through the years our society has viewed urine and feces as waste and to be avoided. Human disease is associated with feces and rightly so. Many pathogens can be passed through and out the human intestine. There are more than 140 viruses worldwide, salmonella and also certain protozoa (amoebic dysentery) that can live in human feces. The main pathogens that persist in human feces are parasitic worms. These include hookworms (Necator amercanus, Ancylostoma duodenale, A. braziliense, A. caninum, and A. ceylanicum), whipworms (Trichuris trichiura), and roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides). It is the roundworm’s eggs that are the hardest to kill. The eggs have a shell made of five layers that resist freezing temperatures; many chemicals including disinfectants, harsh environmental conditions and can last up to ten years. Roundworm eggs are killed when heated for one hour at 120 degrees Fahrenheit.1
Human urine, feces and food scraps can be composted. In any compost pile there are microorganisms that heat it up and break down the organic material. When the temperature of the pile is below 55 degrees Fahrenheit, psychrophilic (low temperature) bacteria begin the composting process. The temperature of the pile will start to increase due to the activity of the bacteria and also the temperature of the air. When the temperature of the pile rises to 70-90 degrees Fahrenheit, mesophilic (medium temperature) bacteria take over. The temperature of the pile rises once again to 95 degrees and another group of bacteria, the thermophiles (high temperature), begin their work. These bacteria can raise the temperature of the compost to above150 degrees although this is not desirable. The optimum temperature is somewhere around 120 degrees Fahrenheit. The longer a compost pile is too hot the more non-thermophilic bacteria will die off, decreasing the diversity of beneficial microorganisms. It is at this stage of high heat that roundworm eggs are killed and since the eggs are the hardest to destroy the compost is safe from pathogens. After a period of time (3days –2 weeks) at 120 degrees and the roundworm eggs are destroyed the compost pile starts to cool down. Mesophiles followed by the psychrophiles once again take over the process. Other microorganisms, as well as fungi, earthworms, sowbugs, millipedes etc. finish the composting process.2
When I started reading about the microorganisms and the temperature they had to be kept to accomplish the composting process I wondered if I could regulate such a complex system. Due to the cold of Northern Vermont I altered the way I built my compost pile. Every spring I build the pile 6-7 feet tall with partially composted humanure-food scraps along with fresh cut hay in layers (first layer is hay, second layer is partially composted humanure and food scraps, third layer is hay, etc). After I build the pile, the compost just heats up. I take temperature readings of the compost pile with a compost thermometer and every year I get similar results. The temperature slowly rises to 122 degrees Fahrenheit and stays there for 5-7 days then cools down. As the composting process occurs the height of the pile drops until the compost pile measures about one and half feet high after it has cooled down. I’ve repeated this over and over and every time I am amazed at the magic that occurs. This process of humification changes the organic matter in the compost to form stable organic matter called humus that resists further breakdown by microbes. Humus is generally dark brown to black in color and makes the soil light, airy and stable.3 The process is very simple and is laid out in detail in Joseph Jenkin’s Humanure Handbook.
To gain a full picture it is helpful to take a look at the structure of soil. Soil is made up of minerals and organic matter (OM). Microorganisms begin the process of building soil structure. It is through microbial activity that organic matter, which includes dead plant and animal material, manure, and organic chemicals, is decomposed. Organic matter is mostly made of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. In soil, oxygen is needed for the organic matter decomposition process to occur, releasing water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The process of changing the carbon found in organic matter to carbon dioxide is known as mineralization. The mineralized carbon in the form of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere during the decomposition of organic matter.4 In this process microbes exude polysaccharides, which act as a glue to bind inorganic particles such as clay and sand together. Locked in between the particles are small bits of organic matter. This mineral-organic matter complex is known as an aggregate.5 Microorganisms cannot reach the trapped organic matter preventing mineralization to occur. In other words, the more aggregates that are formed the more carbon will be trapped decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere.
When many aggregates are held together in bundles by fungal mycelium and root fibers, macro-aggregates are formed. The microbes chemically stimulate fungal and root growth so that aggregates are held together while at the same time roots and fungi release chemicals to stimulate microbial activity producing more aggregates.6 It is this environment including aggregates and humus that makes up the soil structure that provides the pores and crevices needed to hold the water and air for life to flourish. In this environment macro-organisms such as worms and beetles produces more channels allowing the soil to hold even more water and air. Aggregates, organic matter along with the microbes and products made by the different organisms make up a healthy soil. Water can slowly travel through the soil distributing minerals and trace elements that living organisms (plants and animals) need to maintain their metabolism. When humus decreases, the soil becomes compact (aggregate formation and soil structure decreases) and water is not absorbed and runs off causing floods. During droughts the water is not stored and the soil dries quickly in hot dry weather. Both of these conditions (droughts and floods) make it hard for the microbes to flourish, which are needed to prevent droughts and floods.
Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has been rising and is linked to climate change. The soil sequesters (absorbs) carbon from the atmosphere through the processes of humification and aggregation trapping the carbon as organic matter within the humus and aggregates. This increases water retention and movement, aeration within the soils, while decreasing floods and drying out of soils during droughts. It has been found that aggregates need protection from wind and rain to remain cemented together. Raindrops or particles carried by the wind can hit aggregates breaking them apart exposing the trapped organic matter to microbial activity and carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Soils are exposed when trees are cut, when plant growth is decreased due to droughts or compacted soils, or exposing soils through human activities such as building, etc. Instead of storing carbon in our soils erosion causes an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide through aggregate destruction and loss of humus.7
Soil depletion has many complex effects on the environment, in addition to decreased ability to hold water. Among these is the disruption of the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is integral in the production of amino acids, which are needed for all life forms. Although our atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, plants cannot utilize it in the atmospheric state. Nitrogen is also found throughout the soil in animal manure and dead organic matter, which is broken down by nitrifying bacteria into ammonium ions, which the plants can utilize. In high concentrations, however ammonia is toxic to plants, but excess amounts are easily converted to nitrites (NO2-) by a different species of nitrifying bacteria. Once again nitrifying bacteria (different species) converts nitrites into nitrates (NO3-) before plants can use the nitrogen. It is only when nitrogen is in the ammonium or nitrate form that nitrogen can be used to produce amino acids by plants, which are the building blocks of protein. Atmospheric nitrogen also can be converted to nitrates by nitrogen fixing bacteria that live on nodules located on the roots of plants known as legumes. Legumes include clover, peas, beans, and alfalfa. These plants that harbor the nitrifying bacteria build nitrogen in the soil in the form of nitrate. For nitrification to occur good soil structure must be in place for the nitrogen-fixing bacteria to exist.
If the soil structure is poor the plants that are being grown as food still need nitrogen to be healthy and is added in the form of inorganic fertilizer. Fritz Haber a German chemist invented a process to change atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia using gas or petroleum as a source of hydrogen. At first the ammonia was used to produce nitrate, a compound needed to produce explosives. The explosives were mass-produced by the Germans during World War I. Modifications were made to this process to make fertilizer and soon adopted by the world as an acceptable way to increase soil fertility.8 The amount of inorganic fertilizer use has steadily risen through the years to 137 million tons in 1998 worldwide.9 When fertilizer is added instead of building the soil structure, the soil becomes compacted and some of the fertilizer runs into our waterways. As soil loses more and more humus (loses structure) an increased amount of fertilizer is needed to gain similar results (law of diminishing returns. The nitrogen from the fertilizer enters our waterways in various stages. About 20% of the nitrogen leaches from the fields directly into our streams, ponds, rivers, etc. However, the leaching of nitrogen does not stop in the fields. As much as 30% of the original nitrogen from the fertilizer trapped in the harvested crops fed to animals, humans, and landfills is released into the water. When added up, 50% of the nitrogen from fertilizer is released into our waterways.10
Our ancient forests are estimated to have 137,000 pounds of humus per acre. After removing the necessary carbon needed for humification from logging, agriculture, building, etc. our soils now contain 20,000-70,000 pounds of humus per acre with some soils containing almost no humus.11 As stated, humus holds water. In fact it holds nine times its weight in water or 900% as compared to sand at 2% or clay at 20%.12 Since depleted soil cannot retain as much water as healthy soil, during dry spells plants need to be irrigated to grow food. Much of the water for irrigation is pumped from ground water aquifers. Some of these aquifers fill slowly requiring water to percolate through the soil. If the soil is compacted, water runs off reducing the amount that reaches the aquifers. The amount of irrigation has steadily climbed since the 1950’s. As of 1996 the world irrigates 263 million hectares (one hectare = 2.5 acres).13 (vital signs 1999 p. 45) Farmers worldwide are pumping 160 billion cubic meters more ground water than is filtering down to our ground water supplies. As water tables decrease, the cost of pumping increases in both money and energy.14 The activity of irrigating involves exponential growth, throughput and diminishing returns on many levels.
Water is directly used in flushing our wastes down the toilet. In the average home, each person uses 188 gallons per day. This does not include water needed for agriculture, manufacturing, and etc., which add up to 1,565 gallons per person per day.15 Toilet flushing uses, on the average, 30 gallons per day per person or about 17% of the household water needs. Many septic systems do not work properly so not only is precious water being used but also wastes are leaching into our ground water. On a large scale in the mid 1980’s 3619 trillion gallons per year of treated wastewater were released into the coastal waters by 2,209 publicly owned sewage treatment plants.16 Wastewater along with fertilizer runoff lead to increased levels of nitrogen (remember the nitrogen?) and phosphorous levels in the water. This condition stimulates huge algal growth. After the algae blooms the algae dies off and sinks to the bottom of the water source. Organisms decompose the dead algae, using up the dissolved oxygen in the water. Since fish and other organisms need oxygen to survive they die. This choking process is known as eutrification. This is evident at the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico where there is a “dead zone” due to eutrification.17 Many species of algae release biotoxins that are poisonous to humans and marine organisms such as fish, exaggerating the problem.
Sewage is one of the environmental problems that have contributed to the closing of over 2000 beaches in 12 states in 1991 because of high bacteria levels. By 1997 pollution closed 4153 beaches.18 Our need for toilets contributes to this mess. Many have captured the essence of the archaic system. Carol Stoner writes “For one person, the typical five gallon flush contaminates each year about 13,000 gallons of fresh water to move a mere 165 gallons of body waste.”19
Nitrogen and phosphorus are not only needed for plant growth but also for the microorganisms needed in the humification process. When inorganic fertilizer is applied for agricultural use, nitrogen and phosphorus feed the plant growth directly but does little towards humification because there is no organic matter (carbon) for aggregate formation. Humanure has 5-7% nitrogen while cattle manure has 1.7% nitrogen and hens have 6.27% nitrogen. Humanure has 3-5.4% phosphorus compared to cattle’s 1.1% phosphorus and hen’s 5.92% phosphorus. Human urine with nitrogen content of 15-19% and phosphorous content of 2.5-5% along with the solid wastes can produce the compost needed for humification.20
Chicken manure is considered to have high fertilizer qualities. In fact if not composted, plants can “burn” because of its high nitrogen content. When high nitrogen and phosphorus content along with organic matter are composted humus can be made. Back on the farm, Jim, a fellow teacher of the ninth grade had the privilege to observe chicken manure up close. Along with the ninth grade we were all encouraged by Harvey to hold the chickens. Jim seemed to have such a calming effect on his chicken. The chicken became so relaxed and soon Jim was using his chicken manure observation skills. It was soon time for the next event and Jim went to the shower (you remember the shower) to clean up his organic matter phenomena.
Although humanure’s high nitrogen and phosphorus levels are similar to chicken manure and well suited for composting, it is not acceptable in the Western World. There are cultures that have utilized their excrement for centuries. The Hunzas, who live in Northern Pakistan, are well known for their healthy lifestyle and longevity. Many live to 120 years old disease free. As stated by a medical professional working with the Hunzas, “During the period of my association with these people I never saw a case of asthenic dyspepsia, of gastric or duodenal ulcer, of appendicitis, of mucous colitis, of cancer…Among these people the abdomen over-sensitive to nerve impressions, to fatigue, anxiety, or cold was unknown. Indeed their buoyant abdominal health has, since my return to the West, provided a remarkable contrast with the dyspeptic and colonic lamentations of our highly civilized communities.” What is not as well known of the Hunzas is that they recycle their manure. Sir Albert Howard (please refer to the attached article on Howard) wrote, “The remarkable health of these people is one of the consequences of their agriculture, in which the law of return is scrupulously obeyed. All their vegetable, animal and human wastes [sic] are carefully returned to the soil of the irrigated terraces which produce the grain, fruit, and vegetables which feed them.” Tompkins (1989) states, “In their manuring, the Hunzakuts return everything they can to the soil: all vegetable parts and pieces that will not serve as food for humans or beast, including such fallen leaves as the cattle will not eat, mixed with their own seasoned excrement, plus dung and urine from their barns. Like their Chinese neighbors, the Hunzakuts save their own manure in special underground vats, clear of any contaminable streams, there to be seasoned for a good six months. Everything that once had life is given new to life through loving hands.”21
Lisa and I started composting all of our organic materials, including our human wastes 12 years ago. By building up our humus on our property the soil’s ability to hold water increased. We’ve gone through several droughts some of which many neighbor’s wells dried up. Some of our friends had to carry water just to flush their toilets. Luckily our water needs were very low. Our gardens needed little water (if any), the washing machine uses about 18 gallons of water per load instead of the usual 50 gallons, and we had a composting toilet eliminating the need to flush. Not only did our shallow well make it through the droughts, the water level of our pond was only 6-8 inches from the top compared with other ponds around us that were a number of feet lower. I can’t be sure why we were so lucky, but our soil seems to buffer the effect of draughts. The big question is how much energy is used (green house gases) to produce the septic systems, the sewage treatment plants including the pipes and excavation, the fertilizers needed to increase food production, the irrigation systems, and the equipment and materials needed to deal with floods, droughts and pollution? I seem to ask another repeated question over and over, can our children pay the increasing costs in the future?
After the farm trip I traveled back to Vermont to finish my commitments. Once again I found myself at phone booths talking to Lisa. She told me everything that was happening with the ninth grade. The temporary classroom was at a church and was much too small for these students. Two more students were going to become part of the class and it was clear they had to move. The school asked a farm, located next to the lower school, if the class could use a space until the high school building was completed, and they said yes. When I arrived in late October I could see that the ninth grade was completely at home at this farm. With a composting toilet in the yard and the sink outside, who wouldn’t be at home? This composting toilet even offered entertainment. Andrew another colleague one day was contributing his efforts in the humification-aggregation process when the ninth grade decided to turn an outside latch on the composting toilet locking him inside the composting toilet. Luckily for Andrew there was a hole just below the roof that he could crawl through. When he stuck his head through the hole the ninth grade was ready and armed with a camera. After capturing this event on film they unlocked the door. I can tell this year is going to be a year to remember.
Sir Albert Howard --In Memoriam
By J.I. Rodale
From Organic Gardening, Vol. 2, No. 6, December, 1947
ON October 20th the sad news came across the cables that Sir Albert Howard had quietly passed away that morning of a heart attack suffered at his home in Blackheath, nine miles from London, at the age of 74.
It is deeply distressing to think that the leader of the organic farming movement is no more, that he who has won international fame for his labors in the interests of the soil will soon be laid to rest in that same brown soil which was the passion of his life. It is still incredible that the man from whom we heard in every mail, whom we plied with a thousand questions and whose magnetic personality and deathless friendship were felt in every sheet and envelope he sent, has passed from the scene. Although he had continued to work unremittingly until his last moments and had seemed to be in good health, it is certain that the trying conditions with which he, like all his fellow Britishers, had been coping in these recent years had been insidiously undermining his vigor.
Circumstances and conditions militated against the Howards' acquisition of a place large enough to produce their own food, which, had they been able to achieve, would undoubtedly have meant the prolongation of Sir Albert's life. Food being scarce in England, friends on this side occasionally sent packages to the Howards, a mere token endeavor to help. Still, he lived beyond the Biblical allotment of three-score years and ten.
It is one of the insolaceable regrets of my life that I never had the honor of meeting Sir Albert personally. Yet I feel that our relations have been as close as if we had had weekly meetings in the intimate sessions of personal friends. We needed only to ask a favor of each other to find it done. Sir Albert would search in the second-hand stalls of London bookshops in which to find some rare book of which I had need. Recently he undertook the task of obtaining some photographs from the Royal Geographical Society for a book which I am engaged in writing. On our side, we filled the need of Sir Albert for books and bulletins. We were like inseparable, inveterate friends.
I was frequently delighted by Sir Albert's copious use of American slang in his personal letters to me. Sir Albert's honesty and flexibility always inspired in me the most profound respect and veneration. He had developed the Indore method of making compost over a period of thirty years in India and attained world-wide fame because of it. One would imagine that he would have ardently preserved and doggedly fought over its every tenet, every split hair of its principle. Yet, when we discovered on this side of the ocean that the two turnings of the compost could be eliminated by employing earthworms for that purpose, he applauded heartily, reprinting in his publication, Soil and Health, our article describing that method. On other occasions, too, he zealously exhibited the same totally dispassionate and altruistic interest in contributions by others to his own life's purpose and project.
With his scintillating spark of genius and that paramount ability of leadership in his field, he corresponded with people all over the world, seeing the seeds of his work planted in New Zealand, Australia, Rhodesia, Palestine, India, Central America, Canada, the United States and many other countries where organic farming societies are now flourishing. He answered hundreds of letters every month, promptly and with exemplary thoroughness. Through my knowledge of him there were dozens of persons in the United States who maintained a steady correspondence with Sir Albert. It was a strenuous program for a man of 74, and demanded that he give unstintingly of his time, his energy, and his money.
He fought the chemical companies, the college professors, and all the vested interests that placed considerations of financial profit ahead of the welfare of man and that of the soil. Fearing no one, he gave others the courage to fight, himself setting the example and the pattern. A strong and stalwart bulwark, defender of the soil, he tilted intrepidly with the chemical dragons. He had a kind of picturesque grandeur and strength that commanded the admiration and respect of friend and foe. From his own richly metaphor-laden language comes the opprobrious phrase, "devil's dust," with which he dubbed chemical fertilizers.
On the very morning of his passing, October 20th, I received what I suppose I shall have to enshrine as his last letter to me. Dated October 15th: in it he pledged $100.00 as a donation to the new Soil and Health Foundation, saying "I will send you soon some suggestions about the work of the Foundation. This is only to say how pleased I am that you have made a beginning." It is for us to hope that the work of the Foundation will do honor to the memory of Sir Albert Howard.
Here is a word of advice given to the people of the United States by Sir Albert in that same letter: "Whatever your Government does, for heaven's sake try to stop them from lending us any more money. We could grow the food we want on this island, if we made a real national effort. The advice of the U.S.A. to John Bull should be: 'Root, hog, or die.' Once we got our soil into shape, England would be born again. Sometimes it is a case of being cruel to be kind. This is one such occasion."
We agriculturists thank him for his work in behalf of a troubled world, for his brilliant efforts in showing science tat, unless it tempers itself somewhat, it may some day soon lead to worlddestruction. In his eyes shone only the most compassionate love and devotion, that total dedication to the regeneration of the soil to which he gave his life.
Sir Albert Howard, the world salutes you! The world, both its great and its pitiable common men who must resign their sad lives to a long oblivion as they chant to Mother Earth their immemorially pathetic plaint, 'te morituri salutamus.' Your memory, however, will be forever green. Your accomplishments will go down through the ages, your spirit haloed with undimming brilliance.
J. I. RODALE
1 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 158, 169-172.
2 Nancy Trautmann and Elaina Olynciw, file://A\microbes.htm
3 Robert L. Tate, Soil Organic Matter: Biological and Ecological Effects, (N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, 1987), p.114.
4 Rattan Lal (editor), Soil Carbon Sequestration and the Greenhouse Effect, “Fate of Eroded Soil Organic Carbon: Emission or Sequestration”, by Ratton Lal, (Madison, Wisconsin: Soil Science Society of America, Inc., 2001), p. 173-175).
5 Robert L. Tate III, Soil Organic Matter: Biological and Ecological Effects, (N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, 1987), p. 69.
6 Ibid. (p.9-10).
7 Rattan Lal (editor), Soil Carbon Sequestration and the Greenhouse Effect, “Fate of Eroded Soil Organic Carbon: Emission or Sequestration”, by Rattan Lal, (Madison, Wisconsin: Soil Science Society of America, Inc., 2001), p. 175.
8 http://www.woodrow.org/ Fritz Haber – Biography. htm
9 Lester R. Brown, Michael Renner, and Brian Halweil, Vital Signs 2000: The Environmental Trends That are Shaping Our Future, (N.Y. and London: W. W. Norton and Company, 2000), p. 47.
10 The National Research Council, Clean Coastal Waters: Understanding and Reducing the Effects of Nutrient Pollution, (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2000), p. 116-117.
11 William E. Marks, The Holy Order of Water: Healing Earth’s Waters and Ourselves, (Great Barrington, MA: Bell Pond Books, 2001), p. 150-151.
12 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 50.
13 Lester R. Brown, Michael Renner, Brian Halweil, Vital Signs 1999: The Environmental Trends That are Shaping Our Future, p.45.
14 Lester R. Brown, Michael Renner and Brian Halweil, Vital Signs 2000: The Environmental Trends That are Shaping Our Future, (N.Y. and London: W. W. Norton and Company, 2000). p.122-123.
15 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 40.
16 Ibid. (p. 35).
17 //localhost/A:/Global Nitrogen Cycle.htm
18 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 35.
19 Carol H. Stoner, Goodbye to the Flush Toilet, (Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press Inc., 1977), p. vii.
20 Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 57-58.
21 Tompkins, Peter in: Joseph Jenkins, The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, (U.S.: Jenkins Publishing, 1999), p. 151-152.
